1. Brief Description Of Total Physical response
Total Physical Reponse is a language learning method based on the coordination of speed and action. This method was developed by James Asher, a profesor of Psychology at san Jose state University, California. This method is linked to the trace the only of memory, which holds that more other or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory will be.
Stephen states “TPR is powerful linguistic tool that result in instan success for student and the teacher[1]”. That is a heady experience that can be addictive. The instructor ia so thrilled by the excitement of students learning in chunks rather than word-by-word that TPR becomes an all purpuse tool that is used coninually day after day.
There are many TPR based activities that can be used with students of any ages as long as they cognitively ready. Here are a few example: the pointing game, identifying emotion, working with shapes, and following racipes. These activities include concept such as part of body, emotion such as cry, colours, and shapes. With the more advanced students, teacher can introduce the recipe activity to teach cooking, measuring and following recipes.
“The criterion for including item or grammatical feature at a particular point in training is ease of assimilitionby students. If an item is not learned rapidly, this means that the students are not ready for that item[2]”.
Oral commands are the major classroom activity in total physical response. They are typically used to elicit physical and activity on the part of leaeners. Aften learning to response to some oral command the students team to read and write them.
2. The Principle Of Total Physical Response
Asher has elaborated an account of what he fells facilitates or inhibits foreign language learning. For this dimension of is learning theory the draws on three rather influential learning, and they are : “The Bio Program, Brain lateralization and Reductioan of stress[3]”.
a. The Bio-Program
Asher’s total physical response is a “natural method” its means that second language learning is parallel to first language and should reflect are some naturilistic processes. According to Asher “TPR is a based on premise that the human brain has a biological program for acquiring any natural language on earth-including the sign language of the deaf. The process is visible when we observe how infant internalize their first language[4]”.
Aquiring any language from one’s native language to other languages does not begin with production. The decoding is not achieved with translation from one language into another but with what Asher call “language-body conversation”.
It is the example of conversation between the parents and infant. The first conversation is a parent saying “look at daddy..look at daddy!”. The infant’s face in the direction of the voice and daddy exclaims, “ She’s looking at me! She’s lookng at me!” Asher calls this “language –body conversation” because the parent speaks and and the infant answers with a physical response such as looking, smiling, laughing, turning, walking, reaching, grasping, holding, sitting, running, and so forth.
Althought the infant is not yet speaking, the child is imprinting a linguistic
Map of how the language works. Silently, the child is internalizing the pattern and sounds of the target language. When the child has decoded enough of the target language, speaking appears spontaneously. The infant’s speech will not be perfect, but gradually, the child’s utterances will approximate more and more that of native speaker.
Asher sees three procsses as central, and they are:
a. “Children develop listening competence before they are develop the ability to speak.
b. Children’s ability in listening comperhension is acquired because children are acquired to respond physically to spoken language in the from of parental commands.
c. Once a foundation in listening comperhension has been established, speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of[5]”.
Parallel to the processes of first language learning. The foreign language learner should first internalize the target language through listening exercise. Listening should be accompanied by physical movement. Speech and other productive skill should come later. The speech production mechanisms will begin to funcion spontaneously when the basic fundations of language are established through listening training.
b. Brain Lateralization
“Brain literalization defines different learning function in left and right-brain hemispheres[6]”. Its means we have two-brain hemisphere that have different function. They are left-brain and right brain. The right brain hemisphere should produce to language mastery by using language body conversation, while the left hemisphere proceeds language for production involving speaking, reading or writing.
The language learners acquires language through motor movement a right brain activity. When it a sufficient processed to language mastery . the left-brain should be triggered produce language.
The language teacher make a switch by using the new item in a different activity such as story telling, dialogues, or games. Start by playing to each student’s right brain using language body conversations, then switch to be left-brain with activity involving speaking, reading, or writing.
c. Reduction of Stress
An important condition for succesful language learning is the absence of strees[7]. The total physical response was developed in order to reduce the strees learnes feel, when studying fereign language and encourage student’s motivation. An important condition for successful language learning is the absence of the learners stress.
One of the primary ways is by allowing the learning the learners to speak when they are ready, because forcing them to spek before they are ready will couse stress and anxiety.
3. The Objective of Total physical Response
The general objectives of total physical response are :
a. Teaching oral proficiency at a beginning level
b. Using comprehensial as a means to speaking
c. Using action-based drills in the imperative form[8].
4. Total Physical Response In Classroom
Asher research has result in “TPR being used successfully in thausands of classrooms with children an adults learning language[9]”. Theresa also found in his research that TPR is an effective classrooms method that works in the classrooms for student of all ages.
Total physical response method focuses on two key components. The first component is the use of movement as a memory enhancer. The second component is imperative as the as the only of instruction[10].
This means that the teacher uses command to direct with total physical response. The student is able to learn and retain vocabulary hrough hand on instruction.
In teaching vocbulary through total physical response the teacher can use two types of words, the first type is noun such as book, table, room, chalk, pen, et, and the second type is verb such as bring, walk, touch, hold, etc. total physical response, put amphasis on listening comphrehension, before doing the action. It requires the learners to listen first and than response physical to the command Reynolds state that; the focus on classroom command and action verbs. Based on techniques used with James Asher’s Total physical as they learn the new language. Students follow simple command and directions and then give commands to follow classmates[11]”.
Vocabulary is not taught separately, but it taught while teaching other language aspects. Teaching vocabulary is not only applied by introducing the learners new word or some difficult words, but the teacher also try to make language learning enjoyable as possible. The use of command and humors are two ways of showing that language learning can be fun students, in learning their first language, appear to do a lot of listening before they speak, and that their listening is accompanied by physical responses. The aim of this total physical response in to enable students to master and to use the vocabulary in target language they are learning.
Teacher can start the lessonby giving the learners some command. It is an easy way to get them to move and to loosen up. The physical response of the children signals that a direction is understood.
For exemple, teacher command in english
Simple directions :
Stand
Walk
Sit
Open
Hold
Wash
Touch
Complex directions :
Darwin : Open the window pick up a book on the table and give it to me.
Sahara : walk quickly to the door and close it.
Aura : Stand up and walk slowly to the window.
Other commands, teacher introduces these verbs.
Touch your hair
Your nose
Your shoulder
Hold the book
The cake
The cup
Wash your hands
Your face
Your hair
etc
Next the teacher asks to the students some simple questions and they answer them with a gesture. Example :
Who is opens the windows ? (A students point to Darwin)
Who is closes the door ? (Aura point to Sahara)
Who is walks to the window ? Etc
Eventually, stidents one by one, would feel comfortable enough to vebture verbal response to question them selves, and the process continued. At the last step on the lesson, the teacher writes on the black board new vocabulary item and a sentence to ilustrate the item and acted out the sentence. The students listened as she read the material. Mar the students copy me material into their notebooks.
5. Students Role In Total Physical Response
in order to avoid misunderstanding what the teacher commands, it is important for the students to understanding their roles and task. According to larsen “in total physical response the students are imitators of the teacher non-verbal model[12]”. In addition Richard says, “Learners in total pyisical response have the primary roles of listener and performer. They listen attentively and respond physically to cammand given by teacher[13]”.
So, the students have to do certain actions following the teacher’s intruction. Brown states that,”teacher is the director of stage play with the student as actor[14]”. It means that the students perform what the teacher command. The students have intuition to guess the meaning of words from observations or movement that they have been seen before. In this case the students listen to the language used and watch the movement of the each words, and their listening is accompanied by physical responses. Through the response or action the teacher can see whether the students understand or not.
6. The Teacher Role In Total Physical Response
In this technique the teacher has an important rle in performing the action first while showing It to the students how to do it. Larsen says in total physical response the teacher is there director of all students beaviour[15]. The teacher gives commands to use an object or a gesture.
To run this role, the teacher must be well prepared, so that she can keep doing the total physical response. The teacher can only do this if she is well prepared in giving what commands to the students, and what actions to perform.
Dechant states that “the teacher’s major task in the development of meaning is to select the materials and experience that will have the student to become more discriminative and learn to generalize[16]”.
The teacher choose basic language and orders it for presentation.
The theacher is encouraged to be well prepared and well organized so that the lesson plows smoothly and predictable.
Before the teacher begin to enter the classroom, she has prepared the sequence of the command, so the students cannot forget the words that are used in the commands and should know where the words are stated, in relation to this idea. Asher quoted by larsen advises that the teacher have to vary the sequence of the commands so that the student the do not siply memory the action sequence without ever conecting the action’s with the language.
In giving feedback to lerners, the teacher should follow the exemple of parent’s giving feed back to their children. At the frst, correct very little, but as the child grows. Older, parent are said to tolerate fewer mistakes in speech, similarly teacher should refrain from too much corecction in the early stages and should not interupt to correct errors, sice tis will inhibit learners. The teacher should also avoid having too narrow a tolerance for errors in speaking.
7. The Role of Material in Total Physical Response
there is generally no basic texk in a total physical response in classroom. Material and really play an in creasing role, “fror absolute beginners, lesson may not require the use of materials, since the teacher’s voice, action and gestures may be a sufficient basis for classroom activities[17]”. Later the teacher may use cammon classroom object such as books, pens, lope, furniture, etc.
8. The Adventages and Disadvantages of Total Physical Response
The use of TPR in the classroom has often been effective, but like everything is is not a cure all. As we have known that there is no the best tehnique and there is no the worst one. It is true that the total physical response has some advantages and disadvantages. As it is described by Sukirah Kustaryo :
“Some methodologies have promoted methods of teaching vocabulary and tried to make them better by giving solutions to overcome weaknesses of each of these methods based on experiences they faced when presenting materials in the classroom, and coreccting the students work, either their classroom or their homework[18]”.
Based on the statement above, the writer would like to explain the advantages of total physical response.
a. The Advantages
1. Total physical responsewhich is used to clarify the meaning of the words can help students have a clear description of an action because an object or an action is directly out or shown by the teacher in front of the class.
2. total physical response can assist the teacher in focusing the student’s attention so that the teaching-learning process will run as effectively as possible.
3. it can help the students have a long and deep impression about an object or an action because they see it directly.
b. The Disadvantages
The disadvantages of total physical response can be seen in the following :
1. Total physical response needs the students involvement in the process of teaching learning, it is very difficult for the teacher to arrange for all students to imitate what they have seen. If the number of students is so great, all students cannot get chance to practice what they have seen.
2. it’s difficully to teacher when the teacher uses TPR in their lesson, they will have trouble teaching abstract vocabulary or expressions.
3. TPR can be in effective if the teacher uses it for long period of time because the student will get tired of doing it.
.................................................
[1] Stephen M. Silver, How to TPR Abstraction : The Critical Role of Imagination, (on line), http://www. Tpr. World.Htm,Retrieved on June 28, 2007
[2] James Asher, Learning Another Language Throgh Action: The Complete Teacher’s Guide Book, (Los Gatos: Sky Oaks Production, 1982), P. 42
[3] Richard, Approaches and Methode In Language Teaching, (USA: Cambridege University Press, 1986), P. 90
[4] Asher James, Year 2001 Update for The Total Physical Response, Know World Wide as TPR, (on line), http//www.tprsource.com/Asher.Htm, Retrived on June 28, 2007
[5] Richard, Approaches and Methode…, P.90
[6] Richard, Approaches and Methode…,P. 91
[7] Asher James, Year 2001 Update…,P. 222
[8] Asher James, Year 2001 Update…, P. 278
[9] James Asher, Total Physical Response, (on line), http//www.Sil. Org/ Lingua Links/ LANGUGE LEARNING / Way To Approach Language Learning/ Total Physical Response. Html, Retrieved on July 7, 2007
[10] Theresa Romo, Total Physical Response In The Classroom, (on line), http://www.Tpr. World. Com/tpr. In Classroom.Html, Retrieved on July 7, 2007 Theresa Romo, Total Physical Response In The Classroom, (on line), http://www.Tpr. World. Com/tpr. In Classroom.Html, Retrieved on July 7, 2007
[11] Brett Reynolds, TPR and Beyond, (on line), http// exchanges. States.gov/ forum.Html Retrieved on July 7, 2007
[12] Larsen Preemar, Techniques and Principles Language Teaching, (New York: Macmillan, 1986), p.116
[13] Richards, Approaches and Methode…, P. 93
[14] Douglas Brown, Teaching By Principle, (USA: Prentice-Hall. Inc,1994), P.64
[15] Larsen Preemar, Techniques and Principles…, P.119
[16] Emerald Dechant, Reading Improvement in the Secondary School, (New Jersey: Prentice hall, 1973), P. 206
[17] Richards, Approaches and Principles…,P. 94-95
[18] Sukirah Kustaryo, Reading Techniques…, P. 23
Total Physical Reponse is a language learning method based on the coordination of speed and action. This method was developed by James Asher, a profesor of Psychology at san Jose state University, California. This method is linked to the trace the only of memory, which holds that more other or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory will be.
Stephen states “TPR is powerful linguistic tool that result in instan success for student and the teacher[1]”. That is a heady experience that can be addictive. The instructor ia so thrilled by the excitement of students learning in chunks rather than word-by-word that TPR becomes an all purpuse tool that is used coninually day after day.
There are many TPR based activities that can be used with students of any ages as long as they cognitively ready. Here are a few example: the pointing game, identifying emotion, working with shapes, and following racipes. These activities include concept such as part of body, emotion such as cry, colours, and shapes. With the more advanced students, teacher can introduce the recipe activity to teach cooking, measuring and following recipes.
“The criterion for including item or grammatical feature at a particular point in training is ease of assimilitionby students. If an item is not learned rapidly, this means that the students are not ready for that item[2]”.
Oral commands are the major classroom activity in total physical response. They are typically used to elicit physical and activity on the part of leaeners. Aften learning to response to some oral command the students team to read and write them.
2. The Principle Of Total Physical Response
Asher has elaborated an account of what he fells facilitates or inhibits foreign language learning. For this dimension of is learning theory the draws on three rather influential learning, and they are : “The Bio Program, Brain lateralization and Reductioan of stress[3]”.
a. The Bio-Program
Asher’s total physical response is a “natural method” its means that second language learning is parallel to first language and should reflect are some naturilistic processes. According to Asher “TPR is a based on premise that the human brain has a biological program for acquiring any natural language on earth-including the sign language of the deaf. The process is visible when we observe how infant internalize their first language[4]”.
Aquiring any language from one’s native language to other languages does not begin with production. The decoding is not achieved with translation from one language into another but with what Asher call “language-body conversation”.
It is the example of conversation between the parents and infant. The first conversation is a parent saying “look at daddy..look at daddy!”. The infant’s face in the direction of the voice and daddy exclaims, “ She’s looking at me! She’s lookng at me!” Asher calls this “language –body conversation” because the parent speaks and and the infant answers with a physical response such as looking, smiling, laughing, turning, walking, reaching, grasping, holding, sitting, running, and so forth.
Althought the infant is not yet speaking, the child is imprinting a linguistic
Map of how the language works. Silently, the child is internalizing the pattern and sounds of the target language. When the child has decoded enough of the target language, speaking appears spontaneously. The infant’s speech will not be perfect, but gradually, the child’s utterances will approximate more and more that of native speaker.
Asher sees three procsses as central, and they are:
a. “Children develop listening competence before they are develop the ability to speak.
b. Children’s ability in listening comperhension is acquired because children are acquired to respond physically to spoken language in the from of parental commands.
c. Once a foundation in listening comperhension has been established, speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of[5]”.
Parallel to the processes of first language learning. The foreign language learner should first internalize the target language through listening exercise. Listening should be accompanied by physical movement. Speech and other productive skill should come later. The speech production mechanisms will begin to funcion spontaneously when the basic fundations of language are established through listening training.
b. Brain Lateralization
“Brain literalization defines different learning function in left and right-brain hemispheres[6]”. Its means we have two-brain hemisphere that have different function. They are left-brain and right brain. The right brain hemisphere should produce to language mastery by using language body conversation, while the left hemisphere proceeds language for production involving speaking, reading or writing.
The language learners acquires language through motor movement a right brain activity. When it a sufficient processed to language mastery . the left-brain should be triggered produce language.
The language teacher make a switch by using the new item in a different activity such as story telling, dialogues, or games. Start by playing to each student’s right brain using language body conversations, then switch to be left-brain with activity involving speaking, reading, or writing.
c. Reduction of Stress
An important condition for succesful language learning is the absence of strees[7]. The total physical response was developed in order to reduce the strees learnes feel, when studying fereign language and encourage student’s motivation. An important condition for successful language learning is the absence of the learners stress.
One of the primary ways is by allowing the learning the learners to speak when they are ready, because forcing them to spek before they are ready will couse stress and anxiety.
3. The Objective of Total physical Response
The general objectives of total physical response are :
a. Teaching oral proficiency at a beginning level
b. Using comprehensial as a means to speaking
c. Using action-based drills in the imperative form[8].
4. Total Physical Response In Classroom
Asher research has result in “TPR being used successfully in thausands of classrooms with children an adults learning language[9]”. Theresa also found in his research that TPR is an effective classrooms method that works in the classrooms for student of all ages.
Total physical response method focuses on two key components. The first component is the use of movement as a memory enhancer. The second component is imperative as the as the only of instruction[10].
This means that the teacher uses command to direct with total physical response. The student is able to learn and retain vocabulary hrough hand on instruction.
In teaching vocbulary through total physical response the teacher can use two types of words, the first type is noun such as book, table, room, chalk, pen, et, and the second type is verb such as bring, walk, touch, hold, etc. total physical response, put amphasis on listening comphrehension, before doing the action. It requires the learners to listen first and than response physical to the command Reynolds state that; the focus on classroom command and action verbs. Based on techniques used with James Asher’s Total physical as they learn the new language. Students follow simple command and directions and then give commands to follow classmates[11]”.
Vocabulary is not taught separately, but it taught while teaching other language aspects. Teaching vocabulary is not only applied by introducing the learners new word or some difficult words, but the teacher also try to make language learning enjoyable as possible. The use of command and humors are two ways of showing that language learning can be fun students, in learning their first language, appear to do a lot of listening before they speak, and that their listening is accompanied by physical responses. The aim of this total physical response in to enable students to master and to use the vocabulary in target language they are learning.
Teacher can start the lessonby giving the learners some command. It is an easy way to get them to move and to loosen up. The physical response of the children signals that a direction is understood.
For exemple, teacher command in english
Simple directions :
Stand
Walk
Sit
Open
Hold
Wash
Touch
Complex directions :
Darwin : Open the window pick up a book on the table and give it to me.
Sahara : walk quickly to the door and close it.
Aura : Stand up and walk slowly to the window.
Other commands, teacher introduces these verbs.
Touch your hair
Your nose
Your shoulder
Hold the book
The cake
The cup
Wash your hands
Your face
Your hair
etc
Next the teacher asks to the students some simple questions and they answer them with a gesture. Example :
Who is opens the windows ? (A students point to Darwin)
Who is closes the door ? (Aura point to Sahara)
Who is walks to the window ? Etc
Eventually, stidents one by one, would feel comfortable enough to vebture verbal response to question them selves, and the process continued. At the last step on the lesson, the teacher writes on the black board new vocabulary item and a sentence to ilustrate the item and acted out the sentence. The students listened as she read the material. Mar the students copy me material into their notebooks.
5. Students Role In Total Physical Response
in order to avoid misunderstanding what the teacher commands, it is important for the students to understanding their roles and task. According to larsen “in total physical response the students are imitators of the teacher non-verbal model[12]”. In addition Richard says, “Learners in total pyisical response have the primary roles of listener and performer. They listen attentively and respond physically to cammand given by teacher[13]”.
So, the students have to do certain actions following the teacher’s intruction. Brown states that,”teacher is the director of stage play with the student as actor[14]”. It means that the students perform what the teacher command. The students have intuition to guess the meaning of words from observations or movement that they have been seen before. In this case the students listen to the language used and watch the movement of the each words, and their listening is accompanied by physical responses. Through the response or action the teacher can see whether the students understand or not.
6. The Teacher Role In Total Physical Response
In this technique the teacher has an important rle in performing the action first while showing It to the students how to do it. Larsen says in total physical response the teacher is there director of all students beaviour[15]. The teacher gives commands to use an object or a gesture.
To run this role, the teacher must be well prepared, so that she can keep doing the total physical response. The teacher can only do this if she is well prepared in giving what commands to the students, and what actions to perform.
Dechant states that “the teacher’s major task in the development of meaning is to select the materials and experience that will have the student to become more discriminative and learn to generalize[16]”.
The teacher choose basic language and orders it for presentation.
The theacher is encouraged to be well prepared and well organized so that the lesson plows smoothly and predictable.
Before the teacher begin to enter the classroom, she has prepared the sequence of the command, so the students cannot forget the words that are used in the commands and should know where the words are stated, in relation to this idea. Asher quoted by larsen advises that the teacher have to vary the sequence of the commands so that the student the do not siply memory the action sequence without ever conecting the action’s with the language.
In giving feedback to lerners, the teacher should follow the exemple of parent’s giving feed back to their children. At the frst, correct very little, but as the child grows. Older, parent are said to tolerate fewer mistakes in speech, similarly teacher should refrain from too much corecction in the early stages and should not interupt to correct errors, sice tis will inhibit learners. The teacher should also avoid having too narrow a tolerance for errors in speaking.
7. The Role of Material in Total Physical Response
there is generally no basic texk in a total physical response in classroom. Material and really play an in creasing role, “fror absolute beginners, lesson may not require the use of materials, since the teacher’s voice, action and gestures may be a sufficient basis for classroom activities[17]”. Later the teacher may use cammon classroom object such as books, pens, lope, furniture, etc.
8. The Adventages and Disadvantages of Total Physical Response
The use of TPR in the classroom has often been effective, but like everything is is not a cure all. As we have known that there is no the best tehnique and there is no the worst one. It is true that the total physical response has some advantages and disadvantages. As it is described by Sukirah Kustaryo :
“Some methodologies have promoted methods of teaching vocabulary and tried to make them better by giving solutions to overcome weaknesses of each of these methods based on experiences they faced when presenting materials in the classroom, and coreccting the students work, either their classroom or their homework[18]”.
Based on the statement above, the writer would like to explain the advantages of total physical response.
a. The Advantages
1. Total physical responsewhich is used to clarify the meaning of the words can help students have a clear description of an action because an object or an action is directly out or shown by the teacher in front of the class.
2. total physical response can assist the teacher in focusing the student’s attention so that the teaching-learning process will run as effectively as possible.
3. it can help the students have a long and deep impression about an object or an action because they see it directly.
b. The Disadvantages
The disadvantages of total physical response can be seen in the following :
1. Total physical response needs the students involvement in the process of teaching learning, it is very difficult for the teacher to arrange for all students to imitate what they have seen. If the number of students is so great, all students cannot get chance to practice what they have seen.
2. it’s difficully to teacher when the teacher uses TPR in their lesson, they will have trouble teaching abstract vocabulary or expressions.
3. TPR can be in effective if the teacher uses it for long period of time because the student will get tired of doing it.
.................................................
[1] Stephen M. Silver, How to TPR Abstraction : The Critical Role of Imagination, (on line), http://www. Tpr. World.Htm,Retrieved on June 28, 2007
[2] James Asher, Learning Another Language Throgh Action: The Complete Teacher’s Guide Book, (Los Gatos: Sky Oaks Production, 1982), P. 42
[3] Richard, Approaches and Methode In Language Teaching, (USA: Cambridege University Press, 1986), P. 90
[4] Asher James, Year 2001 Update for The Total Physical Response, Know World Wide as TPR, (on line), http//www.tprsource.com/Asher.Htm, Retrived on June 28, 2007
[5] Richard, Approaches and Methode…, P.90
[6] Richard, Approaches and Methode…,P. 91
[7] Asher James, Year 2001 Update…,P. 222
[8] Asher James, Year 2001 Update…, P. 278
[9] James Asher, Total Physical Response, (on line), http//www.Sil. Org/ Lingua Links/ LANGUGE LEARNING / Way To Approach Language Learning/ Total Physical Response. Html, Retrieved on July 7, 2007
[10] Theresa Romo, Total Physical Response In The Classroom, (on line), http://www.Tpr. World. Com/tpr. In Classroom.Html, Retrieved on July 7, 2007 Theresa Romo, Total Physical Response In The Classroom, (on line), http://www.Tpr. World. Com/tpr. In Classroom.Html, Retrieved on July 7, 2007
[11] Brett Reynolds, TPR and Beyond, (on line), http// exchanges. States.gov/ forum.Html Retrieved on July 7, 2007
[12] Larsen Preemar, Techniques and Principles Language Teaching, (New York: Macmillan, 1986), p.116
[13] Richards, Approaches and Methode…, P. 93
[14] Douglas Brown, Teaching By Principle, (USA: Prentice-Hall. Inc,1994), P.64
[15] Larsen Preemar, Techniques and Principles…, P.119
[16] Emerald Dechant, Reading Improvement in the Secondary School, (New Jersey: Prentice hall, 1973), P. 206
[17] Richards, Approaches and Principles…,P. 94-95
[18] Sukirah Kustaryo, Reading Techniques…, P. 23
